Safety on trips

Contents

A short note on why safety matters on a tur

Accidents and unforeseen events happen all the time and cannot be planned away entirely. We must therefore be prepared for things not always going the way we planned. Safety on a tur (a Norwegian outing — anywhere from a short walk to a multi-day trip) is first and foremost about prevention: we want to carry out our trips without mishaps or injuries. And if something does go wrong, we should be ready, whether the weather turns or someone gets hurt.

If we plan well and travel within our ability (tur etter evne — the principle that the trip should match the group’s capacity, not the other way round), we have already done a great deal to look after safety on the trip. Trip planning matters, but you also have to stay alert and observant once you are out. Afterwards, we’ll have gained some experience worth discussing — and ideally writing down for next time. That way we are even better prepared on the next outing.

Tur etter evne also means judging what you and the group are capable of. Whether you are a teacher or a pupil, it is worth thinking through what you and the group can realistically manage. Are you prepared to spend the night out if you do not reach the cabin in time? Have you brought enough kit to look after an injured person on the day trip you are planning? As the teacher, are you experienced and competent enough to take the class on a canoe trip?

Accidents tend to happen in situations where the perceived risk is small but the actual risk is large.

(Albert Lunde, NRKH, Avalanche Resource Group, the Avalanche and Friluftsliv Conference in Stryn, 2005)

Human error and decision-making biases

We are not as good at judging hazards objectively as we might like to think, chiefly because the rational brain works slowly. In situations where you have to make a quick decision, automatic processes take over (Kahneman, 2011). The advantage is that these work fast and use little energy; the drawback is that they lean on intuition, emotion and heuristics (Furman, Shooter & Schumann, 2010). Heuristics are rules of thumb. McCammon (2004) describes a selection of them:

Familiarity – you know the place and do what you usually do.

We feel safe and comfortable in familiar surroundings or terrain. We have been there many times before and nothing has ever happened in this area. Take a look at the map (use the Temakart layer on Varsom) of an area you know well. Can you spot various spots that it might be wise to avoid (for instance, release and runout zones)?
Acceptance – we want to do activities that earn us respect and, ideally, raise our social standing too.

This shortcut is about the fear of standing out. We go along with the assessment the majority of the group has settled on, because we do not want to be the odd one out. Even so, it is worth getting the group to talk things through in such cases. Can the group together explain why the assessment is sound? Raise questions about the terrain, the snow and the weather. Can the group together give good answers as to why it is safe? If the group cannot manage this, it is rarely wise to carry on.
Consistency – we do what we planned, and so may overlook new information.

When we plan a trip with a set goal, it can be useful to follow the three patterns we discussed in the section on trip planning. We have planned around the weather forecast and the snowpack, the terrain and the group. If it turns out that we have to deviate from our plan — for example because the weather is worse than expected — we must have the option of changing it. Remember that the mountain will be there forever; we can come back another time, when conditions are better. Do not follow the plan slavishly if it turns out that conditions are different from what we had imagined and planned.
Expert halo – we trust that the leader has the competence to make decisions, even though the leader is not always the most competent person.

We have probably all come across the typical group leader. We listen to those who speak loudest and make themselves heard. It is not always wise to follow these people. Ask the question: why do you think this is safe? If the “expert” has no good answer to give, or gives an answer that comes down to a feeling or to knowing the area, you should not necessarily listen to or follow that person’s advice. Have you ever come across someone passing themselves off as an “expert”?
Social facilitation – we gain confidence and become willing to take greater risks in order to win social acceptance.

We are often preoccupied with being accepted by the group. And to gain that acceptance we do foolish things, which can sometimes lead to dangerous situations. For instance, you are out on a trip and reach a summit. You want the group’s approval and jump off a skavl (a cornice — a wind-built overhanging snow lip that can collapse and overload the slope below) instead of taking a safe line around it. This can place a heavy extra load on the snowpack, the snowpack cannot bear your weight, and you may trigger an avalanche.
Scarcity – willingness to take risks in order to gain an advantage. Laying the first track in powder snow.

You are at a ski resort, and the urge to ski untouched snow is strong. The snow nearest the lift is full of tracks, and you and your group naturally want to go further out into the area where the snow has no tracks. Have you considered whether, for example, the terrain is steeper here? Look at the terrain above and around you. Are there potential release zones or runout zones?

According to Atkins (2000), we have a tendency to find confirming arguments and to choose solutions that suit our wishes. On top of that, we overestimate our own ability to recognise risk and handle problems (Atkins, 2000).

Knowing about decision-making biases makes us better able to look with a critical eye at the way both we and those around us behave. Being aware that we do not act as rationally as we think is important to carry into trip planning and risk assessment.

Causes of accidents

Horgen (lecture at Rauland, March 2022) presents several interesting findings that show why we make the wrong choices. Many of them rest on heuristics.

We are poor at perceiving risk.
- We are not as objective and rational as we think.
- We are not aware of the hazard — we do not consider that an activity may be potentially dangerous.
A mismatch between the actual hazard, the perception of it and the acceptance of it.
- Willingness to take risks increases with the activity’s usefulness or the reward it offers.
Individual differences in risk-taking.
- Some people enjoy danger, while others are afraid of everything.
- Those who carry responsibility may be more or less willing to take risks.
Cultural differences.
- There are differences in what we perceive as hazards.
- Some communities or cultures have their own view of risk.
Risk-compensation theory.
- If you introduce safety measures that are perceived as reducing risk, you compensate by changing your behaviour in ways that make the activity less safe.

Dahl (2021) has reviewed research from Australia that points to three main findings from accidents in a school context:

Boys between 12 and 17 misjudged steep terrain and moving water.
Challenging weather conditions shaped the trip.
Demanding and dangerous surroundings close to where the teaching took place.

(Brookes, 2003; 2018, in Dahl 2021)

In addition to the human factor — which applies to trip participants too — we see that weather and terrain matter for accidents. Avalanche research bears this out as well. The 3x3 filter method, which looks at weather, terrain and the human factor, addresses precisely these dimensions.

Against this backdrop it seems clear that a focus on safety is important in friluftsliv (the Norwegian tradition of unhurried, outdoor open-air living). The dimensions mentioned here should also be discussed among those heading out, to draw attention to what can lead to accidents. Through good communication and the sharing of information between teachers and pupils, we can learn from one another and make trips safer. A good collaborative climate fosters both safety-thinking and good health.

The Norwegian tradition of safety-thinking

In the old days, using nature was tied to practical purposes: herding sheep and cattle, hunting and picking berries. Knowledge of where and how to travel in the mountains was passed down orally from generation to generation (Jakobsen and Pulli, 2021; Horgen, 2016). Farmers did not seek out danger needlessly, but were willing to take a calculated risk by travelling across the glaciers, because this was the easiest route for getting hold of food (Horgen, 2016). Because of accidents, norms such as using guides who knew the area and travelling in favourable weather came into use in the 1700s. Further on, through the 1800s, a dedicated glacier-guiding service was established, along with cairns to mark the way, and ropes and crampons became more common.

When the English arrived in Norway in the late 1800s, we were introduced to steep, technical friluftsliv, and many local farmers were used as guides. Although the English appetite for “conquests” in nature was prominent, tur etter evne is a concept that stems from this mountaineering tradition (Jakobsen and Pulli, 2021). An unwritten rule when you led a climb was: “Leader doesn’t fall.” With the equipment of the time, a leader fall would be fatal, since the protection (the gear) simply couldn’t have held a fall (Strømme, 2004).

Nils Faarlund, who had founded Norway’s High Mountain School in 1967, then put safety and tur etter evne on the agenda with the booklet “Friluftsliv – what – how – why”. Faarlund pointed out that the area and choice of activity must be matched to the participants’ capabilities (Faarlund, 1974).

Friluftsliv has become steeper, wilder and more specialised over the years. Higher-risk activities bring a greater likelihood of injury. This thrill-seeking, and the influence of impressive images on social media, can push more people into trips that are beyond their ability.

Friluftsliv in school

The head teacher carries the main responsibility for ensuring that the teachers who teach friluftsliv are competent to plan a safe programme. Teachers’ competence varies, and safety measures must therefore be in proportion to the teacher and the group out on the trip.

A report on health, safety and environment (HSE) procedures in friluftsliv teaching at upper-secondary schools and folk high schools shows clear room for improvement at the schools. Flaata (2021) points out that schools need to improve their familiarity with and interpretation of the legislation, as well as their procedures for HSE work. Specifically, collaboration with management, the handling of deviations and keeping professionally up to date are often too poor or non-existent. Pupil involvement, and training in planning, assessment and decision-making before and during the trip, should also be part of the school’s HSE procedures (Flaata, 2021).

On a school trip there are a number of framework factors we have to deal with. Jakobsen and Pulli (2021) mention several elements we must take into account when going on a trip with the school:

Number of pupils and teachers

How many pupils? Group size sets the parameters for the activity.

In schools it is not unusual to have up to 30 pupils on a trip. Research on groups and group size shows that groups of four to six people are optimal (Magnussen, 2018; Jakobsen and Pulli, 2021). That is largely impossible to achieve in an ordinary school day. Many pupils and few teachers call for activities where the teacher is able to look after safety.

It is easier to take a larger number of pupils on a walk than on a canoe or kayak trip. A number of activities — including climbing, glacier travel and kayaking — have standards setting out how many participants there may be per instructor. The pupils’ and teachers’ capabilities and competence also affect which activities are carried out.

The teacher’s competence

The most important thing is that the teacher or teachers have the competence and the capacity to take the pupils on the trips on offer. Use your own strengths in your teaching. If you are a seasoned canoeist, it may be enjoyable to take the pupils on a paddling trip. If you have spent a lot of time in the high mountains with map and compass, you can take the pupils on a trip of that kind. If, on the other hand, you have hardly done any climbing, you should leave climbing trips off the programme.

As a teacher, you must be able to judge what you are capable of yourself. In her doctoral thesis, Lena Dahl (2021) finds that teachers who teach friluftsliv without formal training are more likely to report accidents. Even so, it is the combined practical experience, education, in-house training and socialisation that determine a teacher’s competence (Nygren, 2008). You must be able to recognise situations that may be potentially dangerous, you must be able to foresee what scenarios may unfold on a trip, and you must be able to judge what is the wise thing to do once you are out in the field. It is no help being an expert at rolling a kayak if you aren’t paying attention and miss problems that may arise if the wind starts to pick up.

The pupils’ capabilities and skills

One of the most important factors for an activity is the pupils. What experience do the pupils have of friluftsliv, and what kit do they have? What are the pupils motivated to do? There are good opportunities for pupils to help decide the content of the trips and to build in progression so that they experience a sense of mastery.

Pupils start from different positions, and this has to be taken into account in the choice of activity and level of difficulty. A pupil who has never carried a rucksack should not be taken on a week-long camping trip without practising first. A hut-to-hut ski trip can be entirely straightforward with a class, as long as the pupils have skiing experience. As the make-up of the pupil group changes, the activities should be adjusted too, with an eye to who is going on the trip. If you are doing several trips, building progression into them is a wise move.

Resources and kit

What kit do the pupils have? It must be possible to obtain gear for the trips at a reasonable cost. Schools often have a fair amount of shared kit, such as tents and cookware, that can be borrowed. It is important that this is checked over regularly and maintained for as long a working life as possible. For personal kit, such as skis and sleeping bags, borrowing schemes like BUA and Frilager are good options for pupils.

What safety equipment does the school have access to? Do you have a throw line for canoeing, or a lavvo with a stove for sleeping out in the snow? Planning a trip takes time. Both pupils and teacher must be prepared for the trip ahead and informed about what it involves.

The legislation: what we have to comply with

Friluftsliv in Norway is governed by the following laws:

In addition, the “Working Environment Act” (arbeidsmiljøloven) and the “Regulations relating to organisation, management and participation” apply to employees who lead activities outdoors.

The Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) points out that a provider of a consumer service must:

”[…] be able to identify risk factors responsibly and assess the overall risk associated with carrying out the service you offer, as well as take the necessary and sufficient measures to ensure that the risk to consumers and others is acceptable. The responsibility for making consumer services safe applies regardless of whether the provider receives payment for the service, and regardless of whether the provider is a business or not.” (the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection, 2007, p. 4).

The responsibility therefore applies regardless of whether you charge for the service or not, or whether you are a private individual or a business. The law firm Steenstrup (2009) points out that organising activities jointly will be regarded as service provision, even if the participants are in principle responsible for themselves and their own safety.

Furthermore, according to DSB, a provider of a consumer service has a fundamental duty of care and duty of competence, both in relation to making their own services safe and in relation to products that form part of the service (the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection, 2007, p. 5).

The organiser’s responsibility

Everyone taking pupils on excursions must comply with the duties set out in the legislation. The HSE plan is there to ensure that these duties are met.

The duties set out in the Product Control Act and the Internal Control Regulations are often called “the organiser’s responsibility” and are first and foremost about five duties (the law firm Steenstrup & Stordrange, 2009).

The duty of care – be attentive and careful

(the Product Control Act)
- You must take the necessary measures to prevent harm
- Do not expose participants to needless danger
- Carry out a risk assessment of the activity or activities
  - The risk assessment must be documented in writing
The duty to inform – give participants sufficient information

(the Product Control Act)
- Participants must be told what they are taking part in
- You must inform them both beforehand and during the trip
- Participants must be given enough information to judge the safety themselves and, where appropriate, to protect themselves against danger
The duty of competence – have the necessary knowledge and qualifications

(the Product Control Act)
- The provider is responsible for ensuring that those in charge have enough knowledge to lead the activity
  - At a school, the head teacher is the responsible party
- Whoever is responsible for the activities must have knowledge of the equipment used for the activity
  - Examples of equipment might be a climbing harness and belay device, a buoyancy aid and paddle, crampons and ice axes, or an avalanche transceiver and probe
The duty to document – document safety work

(the Internal Control Regulations)
- Have goals for HSE work
- Have systematic follow-up of the internal control to ensure it works as well as possible
- An overview of how responsibilities and tasks for HSE work are allocated
- Map hazards, assess risk and put risk-reducing measures in place
- Establish procedures to detect, correct and prevent breaches of HSE legislation
(the Internal Control Regulations, 1997, § 5)
The duty of internal control – check and improve your own procedures

(the Internal Control Regulations)
- An HSE plan and the follow-up of it
- Put in place procedures to detect, correct and prevent breaches of statutory requirements
  - A deviation form is a useful tool
    - Read more about deviation forms
- Ensure that employees have sufficient information about HSE work
  - They must also be informed of any changes
- Ensure that employees are involved so that knowledge and experience are used as well as possible

The Product Control Act

The Act is intended to prevent harm from occurring and to ensure that consumer services are safe (the Product Control Act, 1976, § 1). In this context, activities run by the school — such as mountain trips, paddling, sailing, stand-up paddleboarding (SUP) and climbing — are defined as consumer services.

Whoever offers such services must ”[…] exercise due care and take reasonable measures to prevent the consumer service from causing harm to health” (the Product Control Act, 1976, § 3). The provider in this context will be the school or parties the school has engaged. The school will have an overarching responsibility for ensuring that hired-in resources, such as instructors, are of an acceptable standard.

Furthermore, the recipient of a consumer service must be given sufficient and relevant information to be able to judge the safety of the trips and, where appropriate, to take safety measures (the Product Control Act, 1976, § 3). The recipient of a consumer service, in a school context, is the pupils. One example of information might be to point out the risk of loose rock on outdoor climbing walls and at the same time to mention the option of wearing a helmet. “The information must be clear, readily available and adapted to the needs of the user and the recipient. Such information does not exempt anyone from the other requirements of the Act” (the Product Control Act, 1976, § 3). This means that if you, as the provider, consider there to be a serious risk of being hit on the head by rock on the climbing wall, you should require the climbers to wear a helmet. In some cases the hazards may be obvious without explicit information. One example might be having to protect yourself against strong sun in summer.

It is the Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) that is the supervisory body for the Act.

The Internal Control Regulations

The Regulations relating to systematic health, environmental and safety work in enterprises (the Internal Control Regulations) set requirements for ongoing safety work for all enterprises that offer consumer services. Measures relating to safety and the prevention of mishaps and accidents must be carried out systematically, in line with the goals of the health, safety and environment (HSE) legislation.

In the regulations, internal control means: “Systematic measures intended to ensure that an enterprise’s activities are planned, organised, performed, made safe and maintained in accordance with requirements laid down in or pursuant to the health, environmental and safety legislation”. (the Internal Control Regulations, 1997, § 5). In practice this means:

Table: Screenshot from the Internal Control Regulations the Internal Control Regulations, 1997, § 5, https://lovdata.no/dokument/SF/forskrift/1996-12-06-1127

An HSE plan in friluftsliv

HSE stands for health, safety and environment. The reason for having an HSE plan is, quite simply, a wish to reduce the risk of accidents happening on a trip. We recommend having a dedicated HSE plan for friluftsliv in order to document the duties the legislation places on us as organisers. A written plan brings focus to safety work within friluftsliv, and it also helps secure the transfer of knowledge and experience to new staff.

It is easy to argue that safety and the absence of accidents promote good health, but what about the environment? “Environment” means surroundings, or external conditions for living (Tjernshaugen, n.d.). It can mean both the surroundings we live in and are shaped by, and the living conditions and influences an animal or a whole ecosystem is subjected to (Tjernshaugen, n.d.). Both the working environment and the natural environment are therefore relevant within HSE work. We must also ensure that the school’s trip activities comply with the Outdoor Recreation Act by aiming for as little environmental impact as possible.

Suggested HSE objectives

The school seeks to promote activity, the joy of nature and environmental awareness through our trips. Pupils should experience mastery, joy, challenges, increased knowledge and skills, as well as a sense of security.
Through the trips, pupils should learn about safe, nature-friendly travel in the outdoors.
The school should have up-to-date systems for risk assessment so that trips are carried out as safely as possible.
The school should work actively to keep the number of accidents and mishaps down.
The school should have a system for regular inspection of the equipment used in friluftsliv-related activities, in order to ensure safe experiences.
All teachers who take part in school-run excursions should have the necessary competence for the trips they are joining.
Ensure a sound system for handling deviations, following them up and learning from unwanted events.
HSE work should be a continuous effort, both in writing and verbally.

Environment

“Anyone who travels or stays on another person’s land, or at sea beyond it, shall behave considerately and with care so as not to cause damage or inconvenience to the owner, user or others, or harm to the environment. They are obliged to ensure that they do not leave the place in a condition that may be unsightly or that may cause damage or inconvenience to anyone. The owner or user of the land has the right to turn away people who behave inconsiderately or who, through improper conduct, expose the property or legitimate interests to damage or inconvenience.” (the Outdoor Recreation Act, 1957 § 11)

Nature-friendly travel and sustainable use of nature are gentle on the environment. Looking after nature ensures that those who come after us can also enjoy the pleasures of friluftsliv. Through trips and teaching, we draw attention to the environmental paradox of friluftsliv, to leave-no-trace travel (sporløs ferdsel) and to using the local area. The aim is for pupils to practise leave-no-trace travel on their own too, and to make environmentally friendly choices.

HSE annual cycle

Below is a suggestion of what an HSE annual cycle within the subject of friluftsliv might contain.

Introduction to / revision of HSE work for everyone going on trips
- Risk analyses
- Crisis plan
- Safety form
- Deviation form
Follow-up and information for new staff
Review of the maintenance and follow-up of equipment
Experience and evaluation of trips (at least twice a year — autumn and spring)
- Review the procedures for trips and evaluate them
Departmental meetings focusing on preventing accidents
- Decision-making biases – what can lead to accidents?
- What can we learn from previous accidents?
- What do we do to avoid similar events?
Information about the organiser’s responsibility and what responsibility the teacher has on a trip
Running relevant courses, such as first aid and lifesaving courses
The E in HSE (the environment) should be discussed and anchored in the HSE plan

Reporting accidents and near misses

Reporting accidents and near misses should be part of the enterprise’s procedures, in line with the Internal Control Regulations’ (1997) call to have procedures “to detect, correct and prevent breaches of statutory requirements”. It is important to bring out the cause of a deviation in the report, whether these are the causes of serious events that have led to harm to people, equipment or the environment, or the causes of near misses that could potentially have had a different outcome (the Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, n.d.). Under the Working Environment Act, a deviation is defined as a breach of the requirements in the HSE legislation (the Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, n.d.). By finding out what happened, why, and what measures will prevent a recurrence, we practise good deviation handling. The aim is that, over time, good deviation handling should lead to fewer accidents (the Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, n.d.).

The Working Environment Act (2005) § 5-1 no. 1 and 2 states, on the recording of injuries and illnesses: “(1) The employer shall ensure the recording of all personal injuries that occur in the course of work. The same applies to illness assumed to be caused by the work or by conditions at the workplace. (2) The register must not contain medical information of a personal nature unless the person the information concerns has consented. The employer has a duty of confidentiality regarding information about personal matters in registers.” It is important to create a culture in the workplace where it is expected, and seen as positive, that employees report deviations and that management follows them up well (the Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, n.d.). “The overview of recorded deviations should form part of the documentation that underpins the enterprise’s risk assessment” (the Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, n.d.).

What happened, the consequences and the measures to avoid a recurrence should be noted down (the Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority, n.d.). A deviation form is a tool that serves as a template for such reports.

Below are examples of templates for various deviation forms, based on the Norwegian Climbing Federation (n.d.) and Røkenes and Andersen (2019):

Deviation report - template.docx

Deviation form, unwanted event on a trip.docx

(The documents are downloadable)

The accident database

In addition to internal reporting and review of unwanted events, it can be useful to report accidents and near misses in the accident database run by the Norwegian Climbing Federation and Nasjonal Standard. There the reports are shared externally, and we can learn across enterprises. It is also useful to see at which phases of the activity things went wrong, or nearly went wrong, and what was done beforehand and during the event to prevent harm.

More about the accident database

Since 1990, the Norwegian Climbing Federation and Nasjonal Standard have systematised reported accidents so that we can learn from one another. The accident database is the closest thing we have to a national register for recording accidents in Norway. Registering accidents here is voluntary, which is why many accidents and near misses go unreported. You can find all registered accidents in the database here, and search by, among other things, specific activities and years:

https://ulykkesdatabasen.no/rapport

Injuries and unwanted events on ordinary mountain trips can also be entered here. The more accidents that are entered, the more we can learn. To register an accident or near miss, go to this page:

Ulykkesdatabasen (the accident database)

Research and statistics on safety on trips

For several decades Horgen has researched accidents related to friluftsliv and has, drawing on various media, voluntary organisations and government bodies among others, produced statistics on accidents in friluftsliv. The findings show that the number of accidents stays fairly steady on the whole, with the exception of serious accidents involving foreign nationals, which are rising somewhat. This is illustrated here by a chart of fatal accidents related to climbing and canyoning (juving).

Chart: Fatal accidents, climbing/canyoning, outdoors, broken down by women, men and foreign nationals André Horgen, University of South-Eastern Norway, https://norskfriluftsliv.no/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/6-Norsk-Friluftsliv-sikkert-nok.pdf

Research and statistics on safety and accidents in friluftsliv

Untitled

Practical tips for safety in trip planning and on the trip

Safety before, during and after the trip

Safety related to different activities

Next steps

Teacher’s Guide — the hub
Turning back in good time — pupil-facing, on judgement
Lifesaving first aid — the practical foundation
Trip planning — plan safe trips

Learn more

UDIR — the friluftsliv programme subject — curricula and competence aims
NDLA — friluftsliv — digital learning resource
Norsk Friluftsliv — professional body
DNT — schools — courses and trips for school classes

Text

Gina Wigestrand, Snuitide (2022)

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