Safety before, during and after a trip

Contents

Before the trip - planning

During the planning phase we make sure we prepare as well as possible for the activity we are going to carry out. That also means thinking about what can go wrong and about risk-reducing measures. The following principles may also serve as inspiration and help in the planning work.

Trip plan

We should always write a concrete trip plan for the trip we are going on. It is common to plan a plan A and a plan B. Plan A is the main plan for the trip, while plan B is the backup plan. In addition you should have a crisis plan – plan C. This is meant to help you if an accident occurs.

In addition, make a backup plan that goes through a different area than the main plan. That way you have the option of carrying out the trip even if the weather or conditions do not turn out as planned.

Plan B - backup plan

By making a plan B, or backup plan, we are better prepared if something unforeseen happens.

Remember to draw plan B onto the map. Participants on the trip must be informed about plan B and possible changes to the route. Ahead of the trip you should hold a ferdaråd — a pre-departure safety briefing where the group agrees the route and turn-around points — where you raise:
- What does it take for the route to be changed?
  - One example is how much wind you should tolerate before turning back
  - Should we reroute straight away if we know that conditions will become difficult?
Backup plan in a different trip area

Think through what could put a stop to the original plan. Examples could be wind, snow conditions or heavy precipitation. Make a backup plan in an area that is not as exposed to weather and wind.
Plan C – crisis plan

Make a plan that is meant to help you if something goes wrong on the trip. Whether an accident happens or you do not reach the cabin. Remember telephone numbers and alerting routines in the plan.

The trip plan for the trip we are going on is filled in following the suggested content for trip plans, inspired by Horgen and Christoffersen (2019):

Plan A – main plan	Plan B - backup plan	Plan C - crisis plan
1) Marking the route on the map, with
a. Starting point
b. Choice of route
c. Camp sites
d. End point

Written plan for the trip a. Participants b. Tent groups or groups c. Daily plan d. Route description with distances and metres of ascent e. Form of overnight stay f. Division of responsibility g. Food h. Equipment i. Shared equipment j. First aid | 1) Alternative route(s) a) The route is drawn onto the map b) Places where we can seek shelter or alternative overnight accommodation (drawn on the map)
Make a written plan that sets out a) possible adjustments to plan A b) is it possible to get down from the mountain quickly if necessary? c) equipment we may need in various scenarios – for example a sleeping bag if we have to spend the night outdoors.

Inform participants about plan B and possible changes to the route. | 1) Sketch map with a) cabins/emergency shelters b) settlement or mobile coverage c) route choices out of the area 2) Written plan a) Who has first-aid competence b) Who has safety equipment c) Alerting routines d) Mobile coverage e) Response time for getting help 3) Arrangements to strengthen preparedness for accidents in the group a) What do we do if someone gets separated from the group? b) What do we do if someone is injured? c) How do we keep the injured person warm? d) How do we transport the injured person? 4) Alerting a) 113 b) 112 – if the phone you are calling from is locked. |

Here are some examples of trip plans:

Examples of trip plans

Risk assessment

The Norwegian Directorate for Civil Protection (DSB) points out that a provider of a consumer service must:

«[…] forsvarlig kunne identifisere risikofaktorer og vurdere samlet risiko tilknyttet gjennomføringen av tjenesten du tilbyr, samt treffe nødvendige og tilstrekkelige tiltak for at risikoen overfor forbrukere og andre er akseptabel. Ansvaret for sikring av forbrukertjenester gjelder uavhengig av om tilbyder mottar vederlag for tjenesten og uavhengig av om tilbyder er næringsdrivende eller ikke.» (Direktoratet for samfunnssikkerhet og beredskap, 2007, p. 4).

In English: ”[…] responsibly identify risk factors and assess the overall risk associated with delivering the service you offer, and take the necessary and sufficient measures to ensure that the risk to consumers and others is acceptable. The duty to safeguard consumer services applies regardless of whether the provider is paid for the service and regardless of whether the provider is a commercial operator or not.”

A joint organisation of activities will be regarded as service provision even if the participants are in principle responsible for themselves and their own safety (Advokatfrimaet Steenstrup & Stordrange, 2009). School-run independent trips that pupils take part in will therefore also be covered by produktkontrolloven.

DSB’s ROS analysis and the 3x3 filter model are the most commonly used.

ROS analysis

A ROS analysis can nonetheless be a good way to make visible the hazards we may meet on a trip. In addition, the ROS analysis may possibly meet the law’s requirement for documenting safety work to a greater degree than the 3x3 filter model. The analysis should be supplemented with the 3x3 filter model on the trip to ensure good ongoing risk assessment.

A suggested simplified ROS analysis is attached.

ROS- forenklet, mal.docx

Criticism of technical risk analyses

Technical risk analyses, such as DSB’s ROS analysis, have been criticised from several quarters. Haukelid (2000) points out that different risk analysts arrive at very different figures in their analyses. It can be difficult to put figures on probability and consequence, and the result can become more or less arbitrary (Haukelid, 2000; Jakobsen and Pulli, 2021). A consequence of listing “all” the hazards is often that we forget something. A traditional ROS analysis can therefore give us false security in that we believe we have foreseen all the risks and become less concerned with holistic assessments and continuous evaluation of safety (Kaiser 2004; Jakobsen and Pulli, 2021). The trip industry has a particular need to assess weather, terrain and participants, both ahead of and during the trip, Bjerke (2016) writes in his master’s thesis. Such ongoing assessments are not included in DSB’s thematic guidance for the ROS analysis.

The 3x3 filter model

The 3x3 filter model was developed by Werner Munter and was created for travel in avalanche terrain. The model is widely used within winter friluftsliv (the Norwegian tradition of unhurried, outdoor open-air living) and travel in steeper terrain, but can also be used in ordinary camp activities (Jakobsen & Pulli, 2021). The filter model is used both as a planning tool and to assess hazards along the way. The point is to continuously assess possible consequences of undesirable events. Probability calculation is not the focus. Horgen and Christoffersen (2019) highlight alertness in the situation as decisive for spotting possible hazards. This is supported by Endsley (2006) in Vereide, Vikene and Hallandvik (2019), who points out that in several occupations where risk is a factor, “checklists” are used so that people direct their attention to relevant information in a given situation.

Both ahead of a trip and along the way, it is important to make fresh assessments of whether you are able to carry out the trip as planned. For example, someone in the group may fall ill, or you may encounter flooded rivers and have problems fording. Weather, conditions and participants on a trip change along the way, and we must therefore continuously assess these factors while we are on the trip. This is supported in Bjerke’s (2016) master’s thesis, which shows the need to assess these three “filters” both before the trip and along the way. In its simplicity, the model will help us assess which hazards are most prominent at any given time. Continuously assess weather, terrain and participants: is it hypothermia, slipping or tired participants that is the greatest hazard right now? Take risk-reducing measures and make changes to the plan if needed. Involve the pupils so that they can take part in making decisions.

Explanation of the filter model
1. Regional level - done in the classroom
  
  We assess the conditions out in the area we are going on a trip to. This means that we check the weather forecast and other information about avalanche warnings that we find on varsom.no and in the RegObs app. We then look at the terrain. Here the group can study the map and discuss steepness, release areas, run-out areas and any terrain traps.
  
  Finally we must assess those who are going to take part. What equipment must we have in order to go on the planned trip, what experience do the participants have and how large is the group. How are we going to organise the group?
2. Local level - on the trip
  - Keep making fresh assessments
  - Ask whether people are alright
  - Keep an eye on the terrain
  - See whether the weather is changing
  On the trip we, as a group and as a class, must constantly assess weather conditions, terrain and people. Look for which hazards are most prominent. Is it, for example, slipping, avalanche or hypothermia? Take risk-reducing measures such as covering bare skin if it is cold, checking on each other if there is a lot of wind, or walking gentler slopes if the snow is very hard and it is difficult to get a grip with the skis.
3. Zonal level - situation assessment
  
  Along the way on a ski touring (topptur) trip we may discover something unforeseen, such as an area being steeper than the preparations could indicate, or that we discover changes in the snowpack. Then we are at the zonal level and must again assess the situation anew. We then decide which measures must be taken so that the group can safely move on. With good assessment at all three levels in the 3x3 filter model, one can minimise undesirable events on a trip.
As an example, we can imagine that we are going on a ski touring trip in winter with the friluftsliv class. This tool can be used both in the planning and along the way on the trip.

Example of what you should assess when you use the filter model.

Source: K. Sazanova og J. Moland, 2015, https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/turistforeningen/files/f4b0f3385b03619488605f42932ad94e94e67226.pdf

Source: K. Sazanova og J. Moland, 2015, https://s3-eu-west-1.amazonaws.com/turistforeningen/files/f4b0f3385b03619488605f42932ad94e94e67226.pdf
Suggested templates for the 3x3 filter model

Suggestions within three categories: mountain/forest, water and snow are attached as appendix 17.

The templates are inspired by USN’s filter models (2019).

Forslag til 3x3 filtermodellen - skog og fjell.docx

Forslag til 3x3 filtermodellen - snø.docx

Forslag til 3x3 filtermodellen - vann og kano.docx

Tur etter evne

Tur etter evne — ‘a journey within your ability’ — means that we plan, and carry out, trips that we are capable of mastering. Everyone in the group must have the prerequisites to manage the trip that is to be carried out (Faarlund, 1974). The challenges must not be greater than the group, or you alone, are able to handle them.

«Den eneste fjellregel vi behøver å kunne, er at vi må velge og planlegge en tur slik at våre forutsetninger – enda om de skulle reduseres underveis – alltid vil veie tyngre enn de krav som stilles til oss – også dersom disse kravene skulle bli skjerpet. Med andre ord: Velg tur etter evne – ikke over evne.» **(Faarlund, 1974, p. 22).

In English: “The only mountain rule we need to know is that we must choose and plan a trip so that our capabilities — even if they are reduced along the way — will always outweigh the demands placed on us — even if those demands should increase. In other words: choose a trip to match your ability — not beyond it.”

Nes (2019) mentions five points that are central to tur etter evne:

Self-awareness – your own and others’ motivation, reserves and abilities
Knowledge of the weather and natural environment where you are going
Experience – what you already know and your reserves on the trip
Avoiding situations that mean you/the group could need help from outside
Self-reliant – having methods and equipment to help each other in case of an accident.

Based on these principles, the following principles should apply to trips.

To ensure tur etter evne, the teacher must:

Be able to assess realistically their own and the group’s prerequisites against the challenges on the trip.
Have knowledge of the weather and natural environment where the trip is planned.
Plan with a good safety margin, in order to avoid situations that will mean the group needs help from others.
Bring equipment to be able to help themselves and the group in case of an accident.
Have knowledge of, and the ability to follow, the safety routines and trip norms that apply on the trip.
Keep a watchful eye on the pupils and on situations that arise during the trip.
Have good dialogue and involve the pupils in decision-making processes when it is safe to do so.

The precautionary principle

The precautionary principle is a principle that entails that measures shall be put in place, or that an activity shall not be carried out, if there is significant scientific uncertainty (ignorance) attached to the consequences of the activities, and these consequences are considered serious (Aven, 2015, p. 104).

Value discussions about risk-taking, adapting the trip and area to the group’s prerequisites, and participation in decision-making processes have, since the 1970s, held a central place in outdoor guidance (Horgen and Christoffersen, 2019). Kaiser (2004) concludes that the precautionary principle is based on earlier experiences, observations and, in addition, lays the ground for value discussions and participatory decision-making processes. Tur etter evne is a much-used concept within friluftsliv, and can be seen in connection with the precautionary principle.

Precautionary principles in friluftsliv

Assess conditions, the area and the group continuously
have sensible progression - tur etter evne
focus on hazards - not risk
think about consequences on the trip - what if?
Organise participants into smaller groups
focus on good communication and participatory decision-making processes
Make trip norms - and follow them
Make and follow dynamic action plans
Be attentive - keep an eye on situations that arise
Build competence and knowledge
Be humble about what you do not know
Have respect for nature and the forces of nature and convey that to the pupils
Work on developing a reflective relationship with hazard and safety on the trip

(Inspired by Horgen and Christoffersen 2019)

Inform the participants so that they can take part in making decisions if they are able to. How far is there left? Where and when should we take a break? Should we take the long or the short route?

On the trip - be prepared

Ferdaråd

A ferdaråd is a gathering point where everyone takes part and can contribute their input. In this way we get a feeling of closeness and belonging in the group. The teacher gets the opportunity to give information and answer any questions.

Before we set off on a trip we should always gather and talk together. Then we raise what kind of trip we are going on, who is going on the trip and where we are heading. We must also gain clarity about what equipment we need and when the trip is to take place (Jakobsen and Pulli, 2021). The aim is that we plan tur etter evne.

On the trip itself we should also carry out a ferdaråd. The aim is to include everyone who is going on the trip, hear what experiences people have and their ambitions for the trip. The ferdaråd helps to ensure the duty to inform under produktkontrolloven and should be mandatory on all trips.

Before we start walking, the group gathers, and we can ask questions such as:
- How is everyone feeling?
- Has everyone slept well?
- Are the weather and the weather forecast as we had planned?
- Are there any new factors we must take into account?
- Does everyone in the group know where we are going and how demanding the trip is?
- Has everyone brought the equipment they need?
- Is there anyone who knows the area well and is aware of particular things we should take into account?
- Should we carry out the trip as planned? Or make changes?

Trip norms

Trip norms can also be called advice, routines, good habits, procedures or working patterns (Tordsson 2014 in USN 2019). Trip norms are basically tur etter evne and the precautionary principle put into writing.

For trips where the pupils are to travel on their own, written trip norms that the pupils have been made familiar with are recommended. It can also be an advantage to draw up written trip norms for canoeing and ski trips, as these are activities with high injury potential in the event of accidents, such as hypothermia, drowning and avalanche (Horgen, 2013).

The following points can be a good starting point for general trip norms:

Plan and carry out tur etter evne.
Always prioritise safety first.
Bring necessary safety equipment.
Show respect for the weather, and the weather that is forecast.
Take account of weather and wind along the way.
Think about consequences in all situations.
Listen to and comply with instructions from the leader.
Be positive and constructive.
Carry out leave-no-trace travel (sporløs ferdsel).

Additional clarification for pupils going on an independent trip:

Make clear agreements and keep them.
- At least one person in the group must always have their phone switched on.
- The group must notify the teacher
  
  when they start the trip, when they are in camp and when they finish the trip.
- Larger changes to the route must be sent in writing to the teacher along the way.

Examples of specific trip norms

Taken from the University of South-Eastern Norway’s HSE plan.

Forest and mountain	Winter	Canoe (flat water)	Kayak
Plan and carry out tur etter evne.	Plan and carry out tur etter evne.	Everyone who is going to paddle a canoe should be able to swim.	Everyone who is going to paddle a kayak should be able to swim.
Make sure that someone you trust knows where you are and what plans you have.	Make sure that someone you trust knows where you are and what plans you have.	The buoyancy aid must always be worn during paddling.	The buoyancy aid must always be worn during paddling.
Show respect for the weather, and the weather that is forecast.	Show respect for the weather, and the weather that is forecast.	Make yourself aware of the water temperature before paddling.	Make yourself aware of the water temperature before paddling.
Take account of weather and wind along the way.	Take account of weather and wind along the way.	Take account of weather and wind along the way.	Take account of weather and wind along the way.
Keep the group together.	Keep the group together.	Keep the group together.	Keep the group together.
Avoid anyone in the group setting off on a trip alone.	Avoid anyone in the group setting off on a ski trip in the high mountains alone.	Do not set off on a paddling trip in a canoe alone.	Do not set off on a paddling trip in a kayak alone.
Bring necessary safety equipment.	Bring necessary safety equipment.	Bring necessary safety equipment.	Bring necessary safety equipment.
Hold the necessary competence to be able to handle crises and difficult situations.	Hold the necessary competence to be able to handle crises and difficult situations.	Hold the necessary competence to be able to handle crises and difficult situations.	Hold the necessary competence to be able to handle crises and difficult situations.
	Keep a safe distance from avalanche-prone terrain and run-out areas – go around.	Pack the equipment in a safe manner in the canoe.	Pack the equipment in a safe manner in the kayak.
	Seek shelter if below - 25 effective degrees.	Do not be more than two people per canoe.
	Keep a safe distance from dams and river mouths (ice conditions).	Keep a safe distance from dams and river mouths.
		Keep the group close to land.

Safety equipment on the trip

On trips the teacher must always bring extra equipment to look after safety, but what and how much depends on the type of trip, and not least on personal preferences.

It is important always to bring warm clothing, a sleeping mat and an emergency bivouac to prevent severe hypothermia of injured persons. In addition, a mobile phone, satellite phone, SPOT, InReach or similar must be brought along in order to be able to raise the alarm about an injury. Think that you should bring enough equipment to manage for one 24-hour period without help.

Below is a suggestion for general safety equipment that should always be brought on a trip (including day trips):

Equipment	Comments
First-aid kit	At least one per teacher. Sports tape, blister plasters, support bandage, wound dressing, plastic film and possibly painkillers.
Leatherman (or equivalent)	At least one.
Mobile phone	At least two per group, remember extra charging.
Sleeping mat	Recommend about one sleeping mat per four-five pupils.
Emergency bivouac (group shelter/jerven bag/bin bags)	The number depends on the size. It should be a goal that all pupils on the trip can sit in a group shelter if needed. If a tent is brought on the trip, a group shelter is not necessary.
Warm clothing (and possibly a sleeping bag)	Each person must bring extra clothing. Remember a hat and mittens also in spring/summer/autumn.
InReach	To be used on trips where there is little coverage. Remember to check the subscription and battery before departure.

See otherwise First-aid equipment for suggestions of what should be brought on a trip.

Alerting and measures in case of an accident

On a trip we should always bring a plan for what we are to do if an accident happens on the trip. In a stressful situation it is difficult to remember everything we must think about, which is why it is wise to have a short and clear plan of what we must do. Action cards, alarm plans and “crisis sheets” are all examples of how such plans can look. The most important thing is that it comes across clearly what you are to do, and that the measures are described briefly and concretely.

Suggestion for a short and concise action plan in case of an accident:

Take the lead and carry out necessary safety measures
Carry out first aid
Alert 113, and possibly 112
Alert the school switchboard or the head teacher directly
Look after and follow up those involved in the incident

Death

Procedures regarding death are for the most part looked after by the school’s management. Routines for death should be described in the school’s emergency preparedness plan. On a trip you should bring a written action plan for how the teacher on the trip is to handle any death.

Alarm plan

An alarm plan is an overview of what you are to do in the event of an accident. The alarm plan is more detailed than an action plan and is often used in swimming pools. In a situation on a trip an action plan can be more appropriate, as it tells you in a shorter way what you are to do.

Below are tips for the content of an alarm plan from Svømmedyktig.no (n.d.):

If a situation arises, it is important that a person in charge of supervision takes the lead and performs the role calmly in order to calm the situation down. They then give concrete instructions to others about what they should do to help in this situation. The instructions are to be given in order to limit the harmful effects and to put in place measures that are better than doing nothing.
The person(s) in charge of supervision take the lead if something should happen (appearing calm and avoiding over-dramatisation).
Get an overview: What has happened? How many does it concern? Is it possible that more could be injured? How can we rescue the casualty (extended arm/flotation aid/swim out)? How long has the casualty been under water?
Delegate responsibility and roles:
- Get the others away from the scene of the accident, so that they are not in the way or end up in the same situation.
- Alert, call 1-1-3, state who, what and where (if there is no specific address, give coordinates from the Hjelp 1-1-3 app from Norsk Luftambulanse, or possibly landmarks nearby).
- Help/rescue the casualty.
- Go to meet the ambulance.
- If the casualty is not breathing, begin cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) without stopping, until the ambulance arrives and ambulance personnel take over responsibility or the person wakes up.
- Arrange dry clothes for the casualty if he/she is conscious and hypothermic.

(https://svommedyktig.no/ute/alarmplan/)

Example of an alarm plan:

Alarmplan ved ulykker

Action plan/measures plan

On a trip there should be a plan for what you are to do if an accident happens. Action plan, measures plan or action card are different names for roughly the same thing. The point is to give short and concise information about what you are to do.

Here follow examples of incidents and suggested measures that can serve as inspiration for drawing up your own action plans.

Incident	Measure
Illness/injury

transport of the injured | · First aid on the spot. · Call 113 if there is a need for medical treatment and/or evacuation · Keep the injured person warm. · Possibility of transporting the patient to a treatment provider? o If one teacher: the whole trip group goes along on the transport. o If two teachers: the group can be divided if needed · The school management is alerted. | | Weatherbound | · Return to the nearest cabin if possible · Establish a safe camp or stay in the current camp if you cannot continue o Mark the camp site well with a view to evacuation o Consider digging into the snow if it is not appropriate/possible to use a tent · Consider the need for transport out of the area · Inform the school management by telephone if possible · If it becomes relevant to divide the group, one teacher goes with each group. | | Missing participant | · Gather the rest of the group. · Get information about where and when the missing person was last seen · Start a search for the missing person o If two teachers: a teacher and possibly some of the pupils start a search o If one teacher: carry out a search with the whole group · Alert the school management if the missing person is not found · The police are alerted once the school management has checked that the guardians have not been in contact with those who are missing. · Be available by phone for the school management and the leader of the search operation. · Make sure that the rest of the participants are alright | | Participant who gets lost | · Stay where you are as soon as you notice that the rest of the group is gone · Make camp, mark the camp site clearly and wait for help. · If you know where you are and know the way you can o return to the starting point for the trip o return to the last overnight place · If there is a teacher in each of the groups, both groups return to an agreed place o either the starting point for the trip or the last overnight place · If the weather is too poor to travel in, you make camp and mark the camp site well. · Switch on mobile phones and check coverage o Try to call the responsible teachers. o Call the school management, or possibly the guardians if they do not answer the phone o The guardians must then alert the school management · Give your position if it is known (remember the map reference). | | Hypothermia | · Place the injured person into vapour-tight material such as a group shelter or bin bag · Place an insulating layer on top o Sleeping bag, down jackets and warm clothing can be used o Remember a hat · Place the injured person on a sleeping mat · Place the injured person inside a water- and windproof layer such as a group shelter · Use heat bottles or a person inside the group shelter as active warming if the person is already hypothermic | | Fire in a tent/cabin | · Alert 110 and evacuate the rest of the trip participants. · Carry out a head count – is anyone missing? · Give first aid to any injured and call 113 · Try to tear down the tent if possible. · Try to put it out with water or by smothering the flames (NB! Do not beat the flame, as this adds more oxygen and makes a larger fire). · NB! Modern tents and much of the other equipment we use are made of plastic. This melts and can cause nasty burns. Synthetic materials can also give off toxic gases. Avoid breathing in smoke. | | Rescue by helicopter | · A horizontal flat area of 25x25 m is required. · Mark the landing site (in snow, coffee or similar can help). · Remove all loose objects, such as skis, rucksacks, bags and the like, well away from the landing site to prevent injury. · Signal clearly to the helicopter, or mark with light/a fire. · Stand in front of the landing site with the wind at your back. · Wait for the all-clear before you approach the helicopter. Crouch down as you approach. · · |

Examples of action cards:

After the trip - evaluation

Evaluation of the trip is important in order to learn and make necessary adjustments. Trip evaluation should always be done by the teachers who have been on the trip, and sometimes the pupils should also be involved. Evaluation of the trips as a whole should be raised as a separate agenda item at department meetings after trips have been carried out, in order to ensure good internal control.

Examples of questions for evaluation can be:

Did everything go as it should?
- Why did it go well?
- Deviations (this also includes near-accidents)?
Why did it go wrong?
Injury to person/equipment?
What would you have done differently next time?
- Take the lessons learned with you so that the next trip is better

Follow-up of undesirable events

In the event of deviations/undesirable events, it is very important to follow up afterwards.

It should be noted down what happened, the consequences and measures to avoid it happening again (Arbeidstilsynet, n.d.). A deviation form is a tool that functions as a template for such reports.

Below are examples of templates for various deviation forms based on Klatreforbundet (n.d.) and Røkenes and Andersen (2019):

Rapport om avvik - mal.docx

Avviksskjema uønsket hendelse tur.docx

(The documents are downloadable)

Next steps

Teaching guide — the hub
Turning back in good time — pupil-facing, on assessment
Lifesaving first aid — practical foundation
Trip planning — plan safe trips

Learn more

UDIR — programfag friluftsliv — curricula and competence aims
NDLA — friluftsliv — digital learning resource
Norsk Friluftsliv — professional organisation
DNT — schools — courses and trips for school classes

Text

Gina Wigestrand, Snuitide (2022)

Sources

Advokatfrimaet Steenstrup & Stordrange. (2009, 9. mars). Utredning om arrangøransvaret. Hentet fra Klatring.no: https://klatring.no/arrangoransvaret

Aven, T. (2015), Risikostyring. (2. utg) Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.

Bjerke, R. (2016). Bruk av temaveileder for risikobaserte forbrukertjenester [Masteroppgave, Universitetet i Stavanger, Norge]. https://uis.brage.unit.no/uis-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2415042/Bjerke_Reidar.pdf?sequence=3

Direktoratet for samfunnssikkerhet og beredskap. (2007). Temaveiledning i risikoanalyse. For risikofylte forbrukstjenester. Tønsberg: Direktoratet for samfunnsikkerhet og beredskap.

Faarlund, N. (1974). Friluftsliv-hva-hvorfor-hvordan. Høgfjellsskolen norsk alpincenter. Hemsedal.

Horgen, A., & Christoffersen, F. (2019). Helse, miljø og sikkerhet i profesjonsrettet friluftsliv og naturbasert reiseliv. Friluftslivspedagogikk, s 138-165.

Hovden, J. (2004). Sikkerhet i forskning og praksis: Et utfordrende mangfold med Sikkerhetsdagene som arene. I S. Lydersen, Fra flis i fingeren til ragnarok. Tjue historier om sikkerhet. (s 31 - 50). Trondheim, Tapir akademisk forlag

Jakobsen, A.M & Pulli, K. K. (2021). Sikkerhet i nærmiljøfriluftsliv. I K. Østrem (Red.), Nærmiljøfriluftsliv i skolen (s. 274-297). Cappelen Damm Akademisk.

Kaiser, M. (2004). Et liv med risiko–klarer vi de etiske utfordringer? I S. Lydersen, Fra flis i fingeren til ragnarok. Tjue historier om sikkerhet. (s 67 - 84). Trondheim, Tapir akademisk forlag

Nes, C. L. (2019). Skikompis: snøskred og trygg ferdsel. Fri flyt.

Vereide, V. Vikene, O.L. og Hallandvik, L. (2019) Læring av beslutningsprosesser i snøskredutsatte omgivelser. I Friluftslivspedagogikk, s 67-82